In a new pilot study in the Journal of Dairy Science, citric acid offers an antiviral alternative to pasteurization, ensuring the safety of raw waste milk on farms for staff and cows
Philadelphia, April 22, 2025—We know that pasteurization is an effective method for deactivating the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus and ensuring the consumer milk supply is safe. But what about raw waste milk—including colostrum fed to preweaning calves and milk marked as unsaleable for consumers that farmers dispose of? A new pilot study from the University of California, Davis (Davis, CA), published in the Journal of Dairy Science, demonstrates that simple acidification treatment with citric acid offers an effective, accessible, and easy-to-use alternative to pasteurization to ensure the safety of raw waste milk on farms for both the staff disposing of it and calves consuming it.
The study’s co-lead authors, Beate M. Crossley, DVM, MPVM, PhD, and Richard Pereira, DVM, PhD, working together with avian virologist expert Rodrigo Gallardo, DVM, PhD, all from the University of California, Davis, explained, “We know from previous studies that H5N1 uniquely targets the dairy cow mammary gland, resulting in high viral loads in their milk. And not every farm has access to expensive pasteurization equipment.”
According to the US Department of Agriculture, less than 50% of large dairy operations use pasteurization on site for nonsaleable milk, with just 3% of medium operations and 1% of small dairies utilizing pasteurization for their waste milk. “Without pasteurization, and in the face of a high viral load from an infected animal, we wanted to explore accessible options for ensuring that farms can dispose of milk—or repurpose it for their calves—in a way that ensures it’s safe for human handling and animal consumption.”
Crossley and Pereira’s team first selected two alternative antiviral treatment options to test: milk acidification, which lowers the pH to between 4.0 and 4.5, and the lactoperoxidase system, which increases the concentration of the naturally antibacterial properties in milk. Each method was tested using raw whole milk samples from a local dairy in California, all of which were first tested to measure milk quality parameters, including fat, protein, and lactose percentages.
Three of the trials used LPAI H6N2 as a surrogate for HPAI H5N1, while the fourth trial used milk containing H5N1 from infected cows. Milk samples containing either virus then received either acidification treatment or lactoperoxidase system treatment before being inoculated into eggs and submitted for PCR testing, which is considered the gold standard for avian influenza analysis.
Caption: A new Journal of Dairy Science pilot study demonstrates that simple acidification offers an effective, accessible, and easy-to-use method to ensure the safety of raw waste milk on farms for both staff handling it and calves consuming it. (Credit: iStock/AzmanL)
“What we found shows that milk acidification is an effective and approachable way to completely kill the H5N1 virus in raw milk,” explained Crossley. After just 6 hours of treatment with citric acid, the treated milk was fully deactivated in both the LPAI H6N2 virus trials and the HPAI H5N1 virus trial. “Specifically, our recommendations—based on the trials—would be to acidify milk at a pH between 4.05 and 4.2, with an ideal target pH as close to 4.1 as possible,” added Pereira.
While the results are promising, the researchers emphasize that this is a pilot study and further research is needed to evaluate the on-farm effectiveness of milk acidification.
“Our pilot study suggests that milk acidification could be a valuable tool for dairy farmers to manage the risk of H5N1 in nonsaleable milk,” said Crossley. “This method offers them an easier and more accessible alternative to pasteurization, particularly for smaller farms where pasteurization equipment may not be readily available,” added Pereira.
Emphasizing the impact of this study, the journal’s editor in chief, Paul Kononoff, PhD, clarified, “This research provides a foundation for developing practical strategies to mitigate the spread of H5N1 and provide safety for cows and people on dairy farms.”
Notes for editors
The article is “In-laboratory inactivation of H5N1 in raw whole milk through milk acidification: Results from a pilot study,” by Beate M. Crossley, Craig C. Miramontes, Daniel Rejmanek, Rodrigo Gallardo, and Richard Pereira (https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2024-25985). It appears in the Journal of Dairy Science, volume 108, issue 3 (March 2025), published by the American Dairy Science Association and Elsevier.
The article is openly available at https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/article/S0022-0302(25)00051-7/fulltext, and the PDF version is available at https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/action/showPdf?pii=S0022-0302%2825%2900051-7.
Full text of this article is also available to credentialed journalists upon request; contact Eileen Leahy at +1 732 406 1313 or jdsmedia@elsevier.com. Journalists wishing to interview the authors should contact Beate M. Crossley, DVM, MPVM, PhD, and Richard Pereira, DVM, PhD, both of the University of California, Davis (Davis, CA) at bcrossley@ucdavis.edu and rvpereira@ucdavis.edu.
About the Journal of Dairy Science
The Journal of Dairy Science® (JDS), an official journal of the American Dairy Science Association® (ADSA), is co-published by Elsevier and ADSA. It is the leading general dairy research journal in the world. JDS readers represent education, industry, and government agencies in more than 70 countries, with interests in biochemistry, breeding, economics, engineering, environment, food science, genetics, microbiology, nutrition, pathology, physiology, processing, public health, quality assurance, and sanitation. JDS has a 2022 Journal Impact Factor of 3.5 and five-year Journal Impact Factor of 4.2 according to Journal Citation Reports™ (Source: Clarivate™ 2022). www.journalofdairyscience.org
About the American Dairy Science Association (ADSA®)
The American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) is an international organization of educators, scientists, and industry representatives who are committed to advancing the dairy industry and keenly aware of the vital role the dairy sciences play in fulfilling the economic, nutritive, and health requirements of the world’s population. It provides leadership in scientific and technical support to sustain and grow the global dairy industry through generation, dissemination, and exchange of information and services. Together, ADSA members have discovered new methods and technologies that have revolutionized the dairy industry. www.adsa.org
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